The majority of AD research focuses on dysregulation of fibers and proteins, such as epsilon4 allele of apolipoprotein E (APOE), but little ground has been gained in regards to determining the actual origins

of their dysfunction.67 In the rare early-onset form of AD (EOAD), genetic factors play a more defined role, with mutations in amyloidbeta precursor protein (APP) and the presenilin genes (PSEN1 , PSEN2) showing a clear connection to the disease.68 However, since EOAD does not represent the majority of all cases, accounting for only ~5% of the total,69 this genetic model is not normally applicable. Similar to other complex diseases, late-onset AD (LOAD), the more common form of the illness that affects individuals over 65 years of age, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical demonstrates a Crenolanib considerable number of Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical non-Mendelian features. Some of these anomalies include dominance of sporadic over familial cases,70 discordance of MZ twins,71 differential susceptibility and course of illness in males and females,16,18 parent-of-origin effects72 and, clearly, the late age of onset that is not easily explained by genetic

causes alone. Consistent with the epigenetic hypothesis, abnormal levels of folate and homocysteine, signs of dysregulated methylation maintenance, have been detected in the brain of AD subjects. LOAD is a particularly interesting target from the epigenetics of aging perspective, as the epigenome may become deregulated in old age.73 Using Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical a MethyLight approach, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical it was shown that a large number

of genes increase in methylation with age in control subjects, including several implicated in AD and SZ (GAD1 , PSEN1 , BDNF, DRD2 , GABRA2, HOXAl, NTF3, LDLR, and S100A2), whereas Alu and other repetitive elements showed a significant decrease in DNA methylation that was limited to the first decade of life.74 Of the fifty loci investigated, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical two displayed significant changes in methylation status with age in AD subjects: SORBS3 gained methylation over time and is more likely to be methylated in AD patients, while S100A2 displays a complex chronology, but results in a slow, stochastic methylation decrease later in life (ibid). SORBS3 encodes a neuronal/glial cell adhesion molecule and S100A2 encodes a calcium binding protein from the S100 family. As old part of normal brain aging, S100A2 protein accumulates in corpora amylacea, or polyglucosan bodies; subjects with neurodegenerative disorders experience a much greater accumulation of corpora amylacea,75 and this is consistent with the eventual decrease in S100A2 methylation.74 In a study dedicated to DNA methylation analysis of AD candidate genes, it was found that the twelve analyzed loci were epigenetically different in the brains of LOAD cases versus controls, particularly at the locus for transcription factor A (TFAM), a key activator of mitochondrial transcription in mammals. Other candidates, such as PSEN1 , APOE, DNMT1, and MTHFR, displayed an enhanced “distance” in LOAD subjects.