Vascular clamping is a frequently used method for reducing blood loss [7]. Several studies have shown that the normal livers tolerate periods of continuous warm ischemia up to 90 min and intermittent warm ischemia up to 120 min [8–10]. However, ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury of the liver is an unfortunate side effect of this method, ranging from slightly elevated liver enzymes to acute liver failure [11]. Ischemic pre- or postconditioning (IPC or IPO), defined as brief periods of ischemia and reperfusion before or after sustained ischemia, have proven to increase the ability of organs to tolerate I/R injury [12–16]. The precise

mechanisms responsible for the hepatoprotection from ischemic injuries are only partially known. Focus has been on a system of hypoxia inducible factors (HIF), where especially HIF-1 Ruxolitinib chemical structure appears to have a major role in cellular adaptation to hypoxia. HIF-1 mediates essential homeostatic responses to cellular hypoxia by up-regulating gene transcription, via specific DNA motif called hypoxia response elements, and activating target genes. HIF-1 is a heterodimer protein consisting of an α and β-subunit. The β-subunit is expressed ubiquitously in most cells, whereas expression of the α-subunit is controlled by cellular oxygen tension. Under normal conditions the HIF-1α protein is degraded via an oxygen dependent system. By contrast, hypoxia JNK-IN-8 research buy inactivates the degradation

causing stabilization selleck inhibitor of the HIF-1α protein, which then translocate to the nucleus and forms dimers with the β-subunit [17]. The active form of HIF-1 transactivates other genes as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1) [18, 19]. VEGF is an important growth factor involved in angiogenesis. It is a multifunctional protein, with several Idoxuridine effects on endothelial cells to promote the formation of new vessels. Furthermore, it stimulates the production of hepatocyte growth

factor (HGF), which is regarded as an initiator of liver regeneration [20]. TGF-β1 is a member of the superfamily of cytokines. In the liver, TGF-β1 has anti-inflammatory properties and stimulates cell proliferation as well as differentiation [20]. Besides I/R injuries, another possible drawback of liver ischemia in cancer surgery could be growth stimulation of micrometastases. Several studies indicate that the outgrowth of micrometastases is stimulated by I/R injuries during hepatic resections [21–23]. Outgrowth of these micro metastases may at least in part, be stimulated by an increased HIF-1α stabilization [22]. As mentioned above, HIF-1α activates other genes such as VEGF and TGF-β. Especially VEGF is an important growth factor involved in angiogenesis [24–26]. In this sense a stimulation of HIF-1α, via liver ischemia, could be a double-edged sword; i.e., it protects the liver against I/R injuries, but a side effect could be the growth stimulation of micrometastases through angiogenesis.