These activations are in line with the known effects of caffeine

These activations are in line with the known effects of caffeine on vigilance. Indeed, the pattern of consumption of caffeine throughout the day shows that caffeine is mostly consumed to increase the level of vigilance,35 and caffeine is well known to impair sleep.3,38 Likewise, caffeine focuses HA-1077 ic50 available attention and energy on the task to complete, mostly by

limiting distracting external stimuli.39 Finally, the anterior insular cortex, which was activated by caffeine, regulates cardiovascular function and respiratory rhythms. Numerous epidemiologic studies have focused on the effects Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of coffee and caffeine on cardiovascular risk, cholesterol, and blood pressure (for review see ref 40). The data currently available indicate that a moderate caffeine intake does not adversely affect cardiovascular function. However, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical a recent meta-analysis on the relationship between coffee, caffeine, and blood pressure reported that caffeine consumption increases blood pressure by a mean value of 4.2 mm for systolic and 2.0 mm

Hg for diastolic blood pressure.41 In the present study, the values of systolic blood pressure slightly increased after caffeine, especially in the HC group, but because of the large interindividual variability, this slight change was not significant. In the present study, the main difference in caffeine-induced brain activation between LC and HC subjects Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical was the involvement of hypothalamus which was the single region affected in HC, while perfusion was not affected in hypothalamus when the same amount of Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical caffeine was given to LC. When both groups were pooled, the caffeine-induced brain activation

was significant in all areas involved in the two groups. In the present study, we did not record any brain activation or inhibition in the different components of the brain circuit of dependence. In the presurgical followup of a 20-year-old male epileptic patient with right temporal lobe epilepsy and seizures Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical induced by compulsive smoking, we were incidentally able to show that nicotine induced clear focal brain activation aminophylline in the nucleus accumbens, the key area involved in addiction and reward, while caffeine (3.5 mg/kg) did not induce change in brain activation in the nucleus accumbens (Marescaux, Namer, and Nehlig, unpublished data). Therefore, these earlier data plus the present data reflect that caffeine at doses representing about two cups of coffee in one sitting does not activate the circuit of dependence and reward and especially not the main target area, the nucleus accumbens.10-12 This lack of effect is present both in light and heavy coffee drinkers who had claimed that they felt “dependent” on coffee. This data is in agreement with our previous data on rats in which the doses of 2.5 and 5.0 mg/kg also failed to activate the circuit of dependence and reward.

Hydromorphone has been found to be safe and effective in patients

Hydromorphone has been found to be safe and effective in patients with impaired renal or hepatic function, although it is advised to be used with caution and close monitoring owing to the increased exposure to (mean Cmax and AUC were 2- to 4-fold higher) and slower elimination of hydromorphone and its metabolites in these patients [25-29]. Glucuronidation is the main metabolic pathway of hydromorphone and the principal metabolite is hydromorphone-3-glucuronide.

It is unlikely that hydromorphone would be involved in drug interactions involving cytochrome P450 (CYP) because studies have shown hydromorphone is metabolised via non-CYP dependent pathways and Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical only minimally metabolised by P450 enzymes [30,31]. Hydromorphone

also lacks the analgesically active metabolites of many opioids that may lead to respiratory depression if accumulated Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and demonstrates a very low plasma protein binding (< 30%) [32,33]. For these reasons OROS® hydromorphone may be especially suitable and predictable for elderly patients, patients with renal or hepatic insufficiency, and patients with multiple morbidities and medications. Two recent studies have compared Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical OROS® hydromorphone to other commonly used opioid analgesics: CR morphine [34] and extended-release (ER) oxycodone [35]. In patients with cancer pain, clinical equivalence in terms of Brief Pain Inventory (BPI) scores for 'worst pain in the past 24 hours' was not demonstrated for OROS® hydromorphone and CR morphine. However, the negative

direction of the mean difference between the treatments was in favour of OROS® hydromorphone and comparable results were found for secondary efficacy measures Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical such as assessments of pain interference with daily activities [34]. With OROS® hydromorphone, pain intensity scores were Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical similar in the morning and evening (measured by BPI pain now AM and PM), and pain check details levels in the evening were significantly lower with OROS® hydromorphone compared with CR morphine. This confirms that OROS® hydromorphone provides consistent pain relief over 24 hours and that there is little end-of-dose failure pain. The half value duration (the time period in which the plasma level of the active either ingredient is over the half-maximum concentration) can be used to measure the prolongation of the duration of action of CR preparations and therefore test for end-of-dose failure pain; the half value duration of OROS® hydromorphone is between 27 and 29 hours [36]. In the second comparative study, once-daily OROS® hydromorphone and twice-daily ER oxycodone provided comparable levels of pain relief and reductions in pain severity, as well as improvements in investigator and patient global evaluation scores and subjective measures of daily function and sleep, in patients with chronic, moderate to severe osteoarthritis pain [35].

As well, it does not involve randomization The design was chosen

As well, it does not involve randomization. The design was chosen based on its suitability to the study purpose and the nature of the population.

IOX2 Harding and Higginson [42], in a systematic review of interventions in palliative care suggested that interventions should be evaluated using repeated measures from baseline and that ideal randomized controlled trials may be inappropriate. These design recommendations were supported by Grande and Todd [43] following their review of randomized control trials in palliative care research. Grande and Todd also recommended using mixed method designs (quantitative and qualitative) to improve interpretation Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of the results. The small sample size reflected the difficulties Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical in accessing and recruiting potential

participants. The findings specific to the low physical and mental health scores of the participants, provide insight as to why recruitment was difficult. In a qualitative study of rural caregivers of family members with advanced disease, the participants described the multiple significant transitions they experienced in caring for their family member [3]. These included significant changes in their own physical and mental health. It is difficult then for rural women caregivers, who were dealing with their own health issues as well as trying to provide the care to their family member with advanced cancer, to take on the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical burden of participating in a research study. The small sample

size does limit the generalizability of the findings. However, in spite of the small sample size, there were significant study results, suggesting that Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the Living with Hope Program shows promise in increasing feelings of self-efficacy, decreasing loss and grief and increasing hope in this high-risk population. Conclusions The Living with Hope Program for family caregivers of persons with advanced cancer Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical is a promising, practical psychosocial supportive hope program that may foster hope. Hope is a psychological inner resource that helps caregivers deal with the caregiving experience. Family care giving is what sustains patients at the end of life [44] and with changing demographics and diminishing resources there is a potential that every Canadian will be an informal caregiver at some time [45]. The Living with Hope Program offers a unique and innovative approach that has the potential to be one strategy to support family caregivers in this difficult journey. Competing interests Isotretinoin The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Authors’ contributions WD, AW, RT, DC, LH, LH and MH conceptualized the study and obtained funding. WD as nominated PI was responsible for the overall study coordination including recruitment, data collection, transcription of the data and wrote the initial draft of the manuscript. SG was responsible for the statistical analysis. All authors contributed to the manuscript by submitting comments and suggestions.

Not least is a very well-characterized psychiatrically normal con

Not least is a very well-characterized psychiatrically normal control cohort. And, as with any new technology, there are considerable technical challenges, such as the use of whole-genome data to identify copy number variation. However, software is constantly developing and it is doubtful that these will be limiting factors for long.89 -92 There are also “genomic” challenges: Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical there are many regions of the genome on which we tend not to focus, such as remote enhancer regions, upstream open reading frames, and chromatin binding sites, which are likely to be functional and affected by rare variation. However, using Mendelian diseases

as a model, it is reasonable to expect that many of the most important variants will be in or very close to exons.93 Thus, see more neuropsychiatric geneticists should be able to gorge themselves on the lowhanging fruit for some time to come. In summary, there have been many GWAS success stories Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical in which common variants have been found to associate definitely with complex diseases. In most

cases, however, the mechanism underlying the association is not well understood, and they have not yet led to strong predictive tests or to novel treatments. Neuropsychiatric disease, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical in particular, has so far benefited little from large-scale analysis of common variants. Use of GWAS data to examine rare copy number variants, however, rapidly led to multiple strong and highly penetrant associations with neuropsychiatric illness. However, the associated variants are not completely penetrant and tend to be associated with multiple Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical neuropsychiatric conditions. Detailed studies of patients and their relatives will be necessary to understand what factors affect the manifestation of the phenotype. Despite this recent success, we can still only account for a very small amount of the heritability of neuropsychiatric conditions. Further investigation of rare variation using whole-genome sequencing Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical is likely to significantly advance the field.
The

introduction of personality disorders (PDs) as diagnostic categories on a separate axis (Axis II) in the third edition of the Casein kinase 1 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III) in 19801 had a dramatic effect on the level of interest in these disorders among researchers, and the number of published articles increased substantially. However, the number of genetic epidemiologic studies of the DSM PDs has remained limited compared with studies on both clinical disorders like schizophrenia, depression, and anxiety disorders (which are classified on Axis I in DSM), and on normal personality traits.2-4 The understanding of the role of genetic factors in the etiology of disorders and traits is inseparably linked to classification, since a precise definition of the phenotype is a prerequisite for all successful genetic studies.

Three of these genes are clearly involved in the process of O-ma

Three of these genes are clearly involved in the process of O-mannosylation (POMT1, POMT2, POMGnT1) (20, 24, 25), while the function of the remaining 3 genes, fukutin, FKRP and LARGE is still not clear (26–29). Of these 6 genes, the most frequently mutated in the Caucasian population is FKRP. While this was the first gene to be associated with an extremely wide range of clinical severity, more recent data suggests that this is also a common theme for mutations in other genes. The FKRP gene Our group originally described mutations in the fukutin-related protein gene (FKRP) in patients with a form of CMD (MDC1C) characterized by onset at

birth or in the first few months of life with profound weakness, markedly Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical elevated Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical serum CK and inability to achieve independent ambulation or standing (22). Intelligence was preserved and brain imaging normal. These patients had a significant reduction of the glycosylation of ADG both on immunocytochemistry and Western blot analysis (22). Shortly after, our group also identified involvement of the FKRP gene in a much milder variant of limb girdle muscular

dystrophy, LGMD2I, which had already been mapped to chromosome 19q13 where the FKRP gene lies (30). In contrast with MDC1C, the onset of the condition in LGMD2I varied from childhood to late adult life; typical patients Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical with LGMD2I have a hypertrophic phenotype and a proximal Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical distribution of weakness, limited or no contractures, markedly elevated serum CK and frequent cardiac complications (30–32). Both intelligence and brain imaging are entirely normal. Surprisingly, this form of LGMD was subsequently found to be the most common LGMD variant in the UK population,

due to the high frequency of a C826A mutation, with an estimated heterozygote frequency of ~1:400 (32). Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical This particular mutation was also found at high frequency in other Caucasian populations, such as in Germany (33) and Scandinavian countries (34), while it was less common in Italians, and even less common in LGMD patients from Brazil (27, 35) and Japan. The expression of glycosylated ADG was only moderately reduced in LGMD2I, in keeping with the less severe muscle involvement compared to children with MDC1C (28). Subsequent studies clarified that nearly the originally described MDC1C phenotype did not represent the most severe end of the clinical spectrum, as we then identified FKRP mutations in patients with a CMD variant resembling MDC1C but with additional features such as mental retardation and cerebellar dysplasia and cysts on brain MRI (36), Tideglusib nmr followed by the identification of mutations in patients with severe supratentorial cortical dysplasia and structural eye involvement, mimicking classical Muscle-Eye Brain disease (MEB) and Walker Warburg syndrome (WWS) (37). The severity of loss of ADG glycosylation in these patients was more severe than previously found in MDC1C, in keeping with their more severe clinical phenotype.

Additionally, encapsulation procedures for chemotherapeutic agent

Additionally, encapsulation procedures for chemotherapeutic agents, that is, doxorubicin and paclitaxel, have been established. These unique alternating copolymer micelle nanoparticles were designed as delivery vehicles targeted to human

cancer cells expressing the underglycosylated mucin-1 antigen, which is found on almost all epithelial cell adenocarcinomas, by use of the peptide EPPT, or the folate receptor (FR) by using folate. Development Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of the synthetic schemes has been coupled with in vitro toxicity tests using various cell viability assays to minimize the toxic effect of these copolymer structures. The nontoxic polymers were brought forward Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical into drug delivery and uptake experiments. Cell death due to doxorubicin increased with encapsulation

in these alternating copolymers. Additional slight improvements were observed when targeting ligands were attached to the encapsulating polymer. Similar results were obtained with paclitaxel as the cargo. Cellular uptake determined by 125I or 3H radioactive analysis and fluorescence confocal microscopy was also investigated in other in vitro studies. Microscopy images of the labeled polymer alone selleck chemicals demonstrated that the polymer was most likely confined to vesicles within the cytoplasm and not found in the nucleus, whereas encapsulated Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical doxorubicin was shown to be largely confined to the nucleus. Theoretical models of polyvalent binding were employed Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical to guide the design of the targeting polymers. Unfortunately, the polymers used in this study appeared largely nonspecific for the targeted cells when studied in vitro. However, the versatility of these polymer constructs suggests that continuing to optimize for a targeting delivery Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical system for drugs and imaging agents using this polymer platform could be extremely beneficial. 2.2.3. Attachment to T-cell Surfaces Before discussing the specifics of the use of T-cells in drug delivery protocols, a few general comments about the underlying Non-specific serine/threonine protein kinase principles are appropriate. The basis of this approach

is attributed to the new, burgeoning field of biohybrid materials which will have a significant impact on the efficacy of drug delivery. This is in addition to their obvious use in bioimaging, cellular functionalization, immune system and tissue engineering, and cell-based therapeutics where cell-environment interactions are critical. Of particular interest here are synthetic materials systems such as magnetic micromanipulators, nanoparticulate cellular patches, and functional cell backpacks [31, 32]. These offer exciting possibilities for symbiosis between synthetic building blocks and native biological behavior. The key is the ability to systematically modify the surface of living cells.

10,12 Figure 2 a Pathology of cavernous malformation: presence

10,12 Figure 2. a. Pathology of cavernous malformation: presence of multiple clustered venous structures with thin wall and blood at various stages (hematoxylin and eosin, magnification x3). b. Higher magnification of same specimen showing recent blood clot in the left … Illustrative case histories Three relevant case histories are presented in order to illustrate some of the surgical management strategies and problems. Case history 1 A 40-year-old lady with no previous medical historywas admitted following an acute headache and loss of consciousness with decreased sensorium and mild right Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical hemiparesis.

A computed tomography (CT) scan (Figure 3a) revealed a significant left intracerebral frontal hematoma. Following insertion of a ventriculostomy, her level of consciousness improved and she gradually recovered from all neurologic deficits. MRI confirmed a large AVM in the left fronlo-opercular region (Figure 3b), and a four- vessel conventional angiogram confirmed Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical a 4-cm AVM nidus that was fed via the MCA, dilated branches of the anterior cerebral artery, and leniiculoslriate vessels with venous drainage mostly via a dilated basal vein of Rosenthal, thus accounting for a Spetzler-Martin grade Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical IV (http://www.selleckchem.com/products/dorsomorphin-2hcl.html Figures 3c and 3d). The patient refused preoperative embolization, and, using a

left frontotemporal craniotomy, the AVM was resected completely using standard microsurgical techniques. The patient did well postoperatively and had no speech disturbances in spite of the location close to or within the dominant Broca’s area. An angiogram peformed 1 week postoperatively confirmed the complete resection and persistence of moderate vasospasm (Figures 3e and 3f). Figure 3. a. Axial computed tomography scan showing Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical right frontal hemorrhage and left fronto-opercular arteriovenous malformation (AVM) (case 1). B. Magnetic resonance imaging scan done 3 weeks later showing large AVM and resolving blood clot. c. and d. Right carotid … Case history

2 A 23-year-old previously healthy student was admitted to the emergency room following a severe headache accompanied by drowsiness and left hemiparesis. Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical A CT scan revealed a significant intraparenchymal hematoma in the right parietal region (Figure 4a). Angiography revealed a high-flow AVM with a 4.5 Oxymatrine x 5 cm nidus, a large intranidal aneurysm draining into the basal vein of Rosenthal, and arterial feeders from a large distal MCA branch and accessorily from the anterior choroidal artery (Figures 4b and 4c). After stabilization of the patient who recovered completely from his deficit, a preoperative embolization was performed (10 days after the initial hemorrhage) using a mixture of bucrylate and lipiodol, which allowed for substantial reduction of the nidus (Figures 4d, 4e, and 4f). Figure 4. a. Computed tomography (CT) scan showing right temporoparietal intraparenchymal hemorrhage in a 23-year-old patient (case 2). b. and c.

4, SD=1 4, n=88) and not ‘feeling good’ (M=1 9, SD=1 3, n=87) Th

4, SD=1.4, n=88) and not ‘feeling good’ (M=1.9, SD=1.3, n=87). There were less problems with ‘waste of time’ (M=0.3, SD=0.7, n=88) and ‘information given’ (M=0.5,

SD=1.1, n=87), where more than 80% of the patients did not report any problems at all. Patients in the two groups did not differ significantly in their perception of the various aspects of care outcomes (Table 4). Table 4 Results of the POS (sum and item scores) Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Discussion This study evaluated if there are differences within the health-related QoL of patients cared for by GPs who participated in a palliative training course offered by GPs (PAMINO) compared to patients of other GPs. In our study sample, patients did not report any differences in their Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical QoL and care as measured by QLQ-C15-PAL and POS. The study suggests that PAMINO training makes no noticeable difference to the quality of care for patients between comparable groups of GPs. We tried to include as many GPs and patients as possible, but did not reach our targeted sample size. GPs either did not care for enough eligible patients or did not participate due to time constraints. There were enough practices participating

Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical in the study (n=90), but only half of them included patients. Mostly, there were less eligible patients in the practices than expected: there were not as many cancer patients as we assumed for our sample size calculation. Therefore, this study has the character of a pilot study and conclusions need to be drawn cautiously. Although our study Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical is underpowered, it nevertheless describes the quality of life in palliative patients cared for by GPs. Patients considered their QoL to Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical be moderately high. Not surprisingly, QoL was much lower than in the general German population [13], but higher than in comparable palliative care populations [14]. Additionally, GPs in general

delivered high-quality care in the patients’ view. Compared to patients cared for in nursing Calpain homes [11], they reported better care outcomes. The patients of the German POS validation study [8], who were mostly cared for in palliative care units in hospital, also reported worse care outcomes than our study population. As was to be Purmorphamine solubility dmso expected, both measures correlated highly showing the high interdependence of care outcomes and health-related quality of life as perceived by patients. Although our study failed to reveal statistical significant differences within the QoL of patients, it does not mean that the initiative had no impact at all. Unlike non-participating doctors, GPs participating in this voluntary training might gain valuable knowledge and skills in caring for palliative patients, which are of increasing importance in the future.

Although the findings from

Although the findings from volumetric imaging studies of OCD have been fairly inconsistent, with reports of learn more either increases or decreases (Szeszko et al. 1999) in brain regions thought to be implicated in the pathophysiology of the disorder, our result is

consonant with previous investigations that also failed to detect any macrostructural difference between groups of OCD patients and HC subjects (Jenike et al. 1996; Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical O’sullivan et al. 1997; Rosenberg et al. 1997; Bartha et al. 1998; Riffkin et al. 2005). We already discussed the sources of discrepancy in volumetric studies of OCD, however, it is also possible that abnormalities at the microstructural level, as investigated using DTI, could Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical play a role in the neuropathology of the disorder (Szeszko et al. 2005). Indeed, we did find microstructural diffusivity

changes in our OCD patients, with increased MD in several cortical regions (left dorsal ACC, insula, thalamus and parahippocampal gyrus, right frontal Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical operculum and temporal lobe, left parietal lobe) and reduction in FA values (a putative measure of fibre density, axonal diameter and myelination) in two WM tracts (the left SLF and the body of CC). As both diffusion indices are used to interrogate pathological changes in cerebral tissue and probe the integrity of WM fibre tracts (Basser and Jones 2002), we can assume that altered architecture in specific cortical areas and WM tracts may be responsible for OCD pathophysiology. Provided that there are no previous DTI studies examining brain cortical MD in OCD Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical patients, our results cannot be compared with other investigations, although volumetric neuroimaging studies may supply some Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical insight into the role of the aforementioned areas in OCD pathogenesis. Actually, compelling evidence suggests that abnormalities in orbitofrontal, cingulate, thalamic, and temporolimbic regions play

a central role in the pathophysiology of OCD (Piras et al. 2013a). The pattern of brain alterations in OCD patients is characterized by reduced volume in the cingulate gyrus, and increased volume in the putamen, striatum, thalamus, and temporolimbic regions, suggesting that volume reduction in the cortical source of ALOX15 the orbitofronto-striatal loop, and relative expansion of tissue at the deep GM nuclei and limbic level, may have a primary role in OCD (Pujol et al. 2004; Piras et al. 2013a). Also the insular cortex, a region directly linked to the ventral part of the striatum and probably functionally related to the frontostriatal system, has been implicated in the pathogenesis of OCD by VBM studies showing either increased GM volume in the right and left insula (Valente et al. 2005) or volume reduction in the same regions (Pujol et al. 2004; Yoo et al. 2008).

The authors then went on to look for the duplication in a set of

The authors then went on to look for the duplication in a set of 70 unrelated patients with phobias and found it in 68 subjects. This degree of association is one of the strongest reported for a psychiatric disorder

and a genetic polymorphism. There are, however, many questions that require further clarity, and which additional studies may answer. For example, what is surprising is the broad clinical classification of the anxiety disorders in the patients with the DUP25. From the description of Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the patients, one could assume that there is a common genetic predisposition to all types of phobia, which other studies do not support. The other surprising finding was the complete lack of linkage between the phenotype and DNA markers that flank or are contained within the duplication. Gratacòs et al10 explain this to be a result of the nonmendelian segregation of the duplication within Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical families, since the segregation of the duplication in families is far from simple. Cases of de novo duplication, reversion from duplicated to nonduplicated chromosomes, and the apparent conversion from

one form of the duplication to another were all observed within families. The duplication also exhibits mosaicism, in that it is not Enzalutamide present in all cells analyzed. The authors propose that the mechanism by which the 15q24-26 Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical duplication leads to panic and phobic disorders and joint laxity is probably through a dosage effect, with the overexpression Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of one or several genes present in the duplicated region; however, we will have to await further studies to shed more light on this association. Animal models of anxiety A complementary approach to genetic studies of anxiety and related disorders in humans involves the investigation of genes and their protein products implicated in the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical brain neurocircuitry of fear

and anxiety in animal models. Anxiety is one of the psychiatric syndromes best suited to analogy with animal states. It is well understood that fear, escape, or avoidance behavior, and panic-like responses are ubiquitous throughout animal phylogcny, and as Gorman et ai74 have posited, it takes relatively little intuition to recognize that a rodent that avoids entering a cage in which adverse Phosphatidylinositol diacylglycerol-lyase stimulus has been presented in the past, emulates a phobic patient avoiding a situation that has previously elicited a panic attack. However, as the same authors caution,74 the analogy of panic attacks to animal fear and avoidance responses “is to be sure, imperfect.” Most animal models of anxiety states involve conditioning, and it is not at all clear that PD or any other anxiety disorder except PTSD involves prior exposure to any aversive stimulus. Nevertheless, there are many aspects of conditioned fear in animals that make the analogy with human phenotypes (eg, panic attacks) irresistible, and thus validate the pursuit of genetic studies in model animals.